Pottery is the ceramic A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling. Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous . Because most common ceramics are crystalline, the definition of ceramic is often restricted to inorganic crystalline materials, as opposed to the non- ware made by potters.^[1] The place where such wares are made is also called a pottery (plural potteries).^[2] Pottery can also refer to the material of which the potteryware is made.^[3][4] Major types of pottery include earthenware Earthenware is a common ceramic material, which is used extensively for pottery tableware and decorative objects. Although body formulations vary between countries and even between individual makers, a generic composition is 25% ball clay, 28% kaolin, 32% quartz, and 15% feldspar. Earthenware is one of the oldest materials used in pottery. While, stoneware "Stoneware, which, though dense, impermeable and hard enough to resist scratching by a steel point, differs from porcelain because it is more opaque, and normally only partially vitrified. It may be vitreous or semi-vitreous. It is usually coloured grey or brownish because of impurities in the clay used for its manufacture, and is normally and porcelain Porcelain is a ceramic material made by heating raw materials, generally including clay in the form of kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 °C and 1,400 °C (2,552 °F). The toughness, strength, and translucence of porcelain arise mainly from the formation of glass and the mineral mullite within the fired body at these high. Pottery is one of the oldest human technologies and art-forms, and remains a major industry today.

Background

Pottery is made by forming a clay body Historically the production of pottery has been a characteristic of human activity in most areas of the world. Over time, each culture has established terms which define tools, ingredients and production techniques. Terms currently in use may be derived from a variety of pottery traditions into objects of a required shape and heating them to high temperatures in a kiln Kilns are an essential part of the manufacture of all ceramics, which, by definition, require heat treatment, often at high temperature. During this process, chemical and physical reactions occur which cause the material to be permanently altered. In the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final to induce reactions that lead to permanent changes, including increasing their strength and hardening and setting their shape. There are wide regional variations in the properties of raw materials used for the production of pottery, and this can lead to wares that are unique in character to a locality. It is common for clays and other materials to be mixed to produce clay bodies suited to specific purposes.

Prior to some shaping processes, air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished by a machine called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging Historically the production of pottery has been a characteristic of human activity in most areas of the world. Over time, each culture has established terms which define tools, ingredients and production techniques. Terms currently in use may be derived from a variety of pottery traditions. Wedging can also help to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body. Once a clay body has been de-aired or wedged, it is shaped by a variety of techniques. After shaping it is dried before firing. There are a number of stages in the drying process. Leather-hard refers to the stage when the clay object is approximately 15% mositure content. Clay bodies at this stage are very firm and only slightly pliable. Trimming and handle attachment often occurs at the leather-hard state. Clay bodies are said to be "bone-dry" when they reach a moisture content at or near 0%. Unfired objects are often termed greenware. Clay bodies at this stage are very fragile and hence can be easily broken.

Methods of shaping

Pottery can be shaped by a range of methods that include:

Hand building. This is the earliest forming method. Wares can be constructed by hand from coils of clay, from flat slabs of clay, from solid balls of clay, or some combination of these. Parts of hand-built vessels are often joined together with the aid of slip A slip is a suspension in water of clay and/or other materials used in the production of ceramic ware. Deflocculant, such as sodium silicate, can be added to the slip to disperse the raw material particles. This allows a higher solids content to be used, or allows a fluid slip to be produced with the a minimum of water so that drying shrinkage is, an aqueous suspension of clay body and water. Hand building is slower than wheel-throwing, but it offers the potter a high degree of control over the size and shape of wares. The speed and repetitiveness of other techniques is more suitable for making precisely matched sets of wares such as tablewares Tableware or Table Appointments includes the dishes, sauce boats, glassware, and cutlerys used to set a table for eating a meal. The nature, variety, and number of objects varies from culture to culture, and may vary from meal to meal, although some studio potters Studio pottery is made by modern artists working alone or in small groups, producing unique items or pottery in small quantities, typically with all stages of manufacture carried out by one individual. Much studio pottery is table ware or cook ware but an increasing number of studio potters produce non-functional or sculptural items. Since the 1980 find hand building more conducive to create one-of-a-kind works of art Art is the process or product of deliberately arranging elements in a way to affect the senses or emotions. It encompasses a diverse range of human activities, creations, and modes of expression, including music, literature, film, photography, sculpture, and paintings. The meaning of art is explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics.

The potter's wheel In pottery, a potter's wheel is a machine used in the shaping of round ceramic wares. The wheel may also be used during the process of trimming excess body from dried wares and for applying incised decoration or rings of color. Use of the potter's wheel became widespread throughout the Old World but was unknown in the Pre-Columbian New World,. In the process that called "throwing" (coming from the Old English Old English or Anglo-Saxon is an early form of the English language that was spoken and written by the Anglo-Saxons and their descendants in parts of what are now England and south-eastern Scotland between at least the mid-5th century and the mid-12th century. What survives through writing represents primarily the literary register of Anglo-Saxon word thrawan, which means to twist or turn^[5]), a ball of clay is placed in the center of a turntable, called the wheel-head, which the potter rotates with a stick, with foot power or with a variable speed electric motor An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice versa.

During the process of throwing the wheel rotates rapidly while the solid ball of soft clay is pressed, squeezed and pulled gently upwards and outwards into a hollow shape. The first step of pressing the rough ball of clay downward and inward into perfect rotational symmetry Generally speaking, an object with rotational symmetry is an object that looks the same after a certain amount of rotation. An object may have more than one rotational symmetry; for instance, if reflections or turning it over are not counted, the triskelion appearing on the Isle of Man's flag has three rotational symmetries (or "a threefold, is called centering the clay, a most important skill to master before the next steps: opening (making a centered hollow into the solid ball of clay), flooring (making the flat or rounded bottom inside the pot), throwing or pulling (drawing up and shaping the walls to an even thickness), and trimming or turning (removing excess clay to refine the shape or to create a foot).

Considerable skill and experience are required to throw pots of an acceptable standard, and whilst the ware may have high artisitic merit the reproducibility of the method is poor^[6]. Because of its inherent limitations, throwing can only be used to create wares with radial symmetry Symmetry in biology is the balanced distribution of duplicate body parts or shapes. The body plans of most multicellular organisms exhibit some form of symmetry, either radial symmetry or bilateral symmetry or "spherical symmetry". A small minority exhibit no symmetry on a vertical axis A Cartesian coordinate system specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances from the point to two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the same unit of length. These can then be altered by impressing, bulging, carving, fluting, and incising In geomorphology, the term Incised refers to when a river has cut downward through its riverbed. The river may have been incising through sediment or bedrock. The river begins at one elevation and incises downward through its bed while leaving its floodplain behind . Although, it is possible for the floodplain to be lowered at the same time. In addition to the potter's hands these techniques can use tools, including paddles, anvils & ribs, and those specifically for cutting or piercing such as knives, fluting tools & wires. Thrown pieces can be further modified by the attachment of handles, lids, feet and spouts.

Granulate pressing: As the name suggests, this is the operation of shaping pottery by pressing clay in a semi-dry and granulated condition in a mould A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid like plastic, glass, metal, or ceramic raw materials. The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold, adopting its shape. A mold is the opposite of a cast. The manufacturer who makes the molds is called the moldmaker. A release agent is typically used to make removal of the hardened/. The clay is pressed into the mould by a porous die through which water is pumped at high pressure. The granulated A granular material is a conglomeration of discrete solid, macroscopic particles characterized by a loss of energy whenever the particles interact . The constituents that compose granular material must be large enough such that they are not subject to thermal motion fluctuations. Thus, the lower size limit for grains in granular material is about 1 clay is prepared by spray-drying to produce a fine and free flowing material having a moisture content of between about five and six per cent. Granulate pressing, also known as dust pressing, is widely used in the manufacture of ceramic tiles A tile is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, metal, or even glass. Tiles are generally used for covering roofs, floors, and walls, showers, or other objects such as tabletops. Alternatively, tile can sometimes refer to similar units made from lightweight materials such as perlite, wood, and mineral wool, and, increasingly, of plates.

Injection Moulding Injection molding is a manufacturing process for producing parts from both thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic materials. Material is fed into a heated barrel, mixed, and forced into a mold cavity where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the mold cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer,: is a shape forming process adapted for the tableware industry from the method long established for the forming of thermoplastic A thermoplastic, also known as thermosoftening plastic, is a polymer that turns to a liquid when heated and freezes to a very glassy state when cooled sufficiently. Most thermoplastics are high-molecular-weight polymers whose chains associate through weak Van der Waals forces ; stronger dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding (nylon); or and some metal components^[7]. It has been called Porcelain Injection Moulding, or PIM ^[8]. Suited to the mass production of complex-shaped articles one significant advantage of the technique is that it allows the production of a cup A teacup is a small cup, with or without a handle, generally a small one that may be grasped with the thumb and one or two fingers. It is typically made of a ceramic material. It is usually part of a set, composed of a cup and a matching saucer. These in turn may be part of a tea set in combination with a teapot, cream jug, covered sugar bowl and including the handle in a single process, and thereby eliminating the handle fixing operation and producing a stronger bond between cup and handle^[9]. The feed to the mould die is a mix of approximately 50 - 60 % unfired body, in powder form, together with 40 - 50 % organic additives composed of binders A binder is an ingredient used to bind together two or more other materials in mixtures. Its two principal properties are adhesion and cohesion, lubricants and plasticisers Plasticizers or dispersants are additives that increase the plasticity or fluidity of the material to which they are added; these include plastics, cement, concrete, wallboard, and clay. Although the same compounds are often used for both plastics and concretes the desired effect is slightly different. The worldwide market for plasticizers in 2004^[10]. The technique is not as widely used as other shaping methods^[11].

Jiggering and jolleying Historically the production of pottery has been a characteristic of human activity in most areas of the world. Over time, each culture has established terms which define tools, ingredients and production techniques. Terms currently in use may be derived from a variety of pottery traditions: These operations are carried out on the potter's wheel and allow the time taken to bring wares to a standardized form to be reduced. Jiggering is the operation of bringing a shaped tool into contact with the plastic clay of a piece under construction, the piece itself being set on a rotating plaster mould on the wheel. The jigger tool shapes one face whilst the mould shapes the other. Jiggering is used only in the production of flat wares, such as plates, but a similar operation, jolleying, is used in the production of hollow-wares, such as cups. Jiggering and jolleying have been used in the production of pottery since at least the 18th century. In large-scale factory production jiggering and jolleying are usually automated, which allows the operations to be carried out by semi-skilled labor.

Roller-head machine Historically the production of pottery has been a characteristic of human activity in most areas of the world. Over time, each culture has established terms which define tools, ingredients and production techniques. Terms currently in use may be derived from a variety of pottery traditions: This machine is for shaping wares on a rotating mould, as in jiggering and jolleying, but with a rotary shaping tool replacing the fixed profile. The rotary shaping tool is a shallow cone having the same diameter as the ware being formed and shaped to the desired form of the back of the article being made. Wares may in this way be shaped, using relatively unskilled labor, in one operation at a rate of about twelve pieces per minute, though this varies with the size of the articles being produced. Developed in the UK just after World War II by the company Service Engineers roller-heads were quickly adopted by manufacturers around the world; they remain the dominant method for producing flatware.^[12]

Pressure casting - specially developed polymeric materials allows mould to be subject to application external pressures of up to 4.0 MPa, and so much higher than slip casting in plaster moulds where the capillary forces correspond to a pressure of around 0.1 - 0.2 MPa. The high pressure leads to much faster casting rates, and hence faster production cycles. Furthermore the application of high pressure air through the polymeric moulds upon demoulding the cast means a new casting cycle can be started immediately in the same mould, unlike plaster moulds which require lengthy drying times. The polymeric materials have much greater durability than plaster and, therefore, it is possible to achieve shaped products with better dimensional tolerances and much longer mould life. Pressure casting was developed in the 1970s for the production of sanitaryware, although more recently it has been applied to tableware.^{[13][14][15][16]}

RAM pressing A RAM press is a machine, invented in the USA in the mid-1940s, that is used to press clay into moulded shapes, such as plates and bowls. In operation a slice of de-aired clay body is placed in between two shaped porous moulds, and vertical movement of the moulds presses the body into the required shape: A factory process for shaping table wares and decorative ware by pressing a bat of prepared clay body into a required shape between two porous molding plates. After pressing, compressed air is blown through the porous mould plates to release the shaped wares.

Slipcasting Slipcasting is a technique for the mass-production of pottery, especially for shapes not easily made on a wheel. A liquid clay body slip is poured into plaster moulds and allowed to form a layer, the cast, on the inside cavity of the mould. In a solid cast mould, ceramic objects such as handles and platters are surrounded by plaster on all sides: is often used in the mass-production of ceramics and is ideally suited to the making of wares that cannot be formed by other methods of shaping. A slip A slip is a suspension in water of clay and/or other materials used in the production of ceramic ware. Deflocculant, such as sodium silicate, can be added to the slip to disperse the raw material particles. This allows a higher solids content to be used, or allows a fluid slip to be produced with the a minimum of water so that drying shrinkage is, made by mixing clay Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained minerals. Clay deposits are mostly composed of clay minerals, a subtype of phyllosilicate minerals, which impart plasticity and harden when fired or dried; they also may contain variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure by polar attraction. Organic materials body with water, is poured into a highly absorbent plaster mold. Water from the slip is absorbed into the mould leaving a layer of clay body covering its internal surfaces and taking its internal shape. Excess slip is poured out of the mold, which is then split open and the molded object removed. Slipcasting is widely used in the production of sanitary wares and is also used for making smaller articles, such as intricately detailed figurines.

Decorating and glazing

Pottery may be decorated in a number of ways, including:

• In the clay body; by, for example, incising patterns on its surface.
• Underglaze Underglaze is a method of decorating ceramic articles, the decoration is applied to the surface before it is glazed. Because the glaze will subsequently cover it such decoration is completely durable, but because the subsequent glost firing is at a higher temperature than used in on-glaze decoration the range of available colours is more limited decoration, in the manner of many blue and white wares "Blue and white wares" designate white pottery and porcelain decorated under the glaze with a blue pigment, generally cobalt oxide. The decoration is commonly applied by hand, by stencilling or by transfer-printing, though other methods of application have also been used.
• In-glaze decoration In-glaze is a method of decorating ceramic articles, where the decoration is applied on the surface of the glaze before the glost fire so that it matures simultaneously with the glaze
• On-glaze decoration On-glaze is a method of decorating ceramic articles, where the decoration is applied after it has been glazed. When the ware is fired, or re-fired in the case of twice-fired ware, the colours fuse into the glaze and so the decoration becomes durable. Because the decorating fire can be at a lower temperature with on-glaze decoration, a more varied
• Enamel Vitreous enamel, or just enamel , is a material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 degrees Celsius (1380 and 1560 degrees Fahrenheit). The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable vitreous coating on metal, glass or ceramic. The fired enameled ware is a fully laminated composite of

Additives can be worked into the clay body prior to forming, to produce desired effects in the fired wares. Coarse additives, such as sand and grog Grog, also known as firesand and chamotte, is a ceramic raw material. It has high percentage of silica and alumina. It can be produced by firing selected fire clays to high temperature before grinding and screening to specific particle sizes. It can also be produced from pitchers. The particle size distribution is generally coarser in size than (fired clay which has been finely ground) are sometimes used to give the final product a required texture. Contrasting colored clays and grogs are sometimes used to produce patterns in the finished wares. Colorants, usually metal oxides and carbonates, are added singly or in combination to achieve a desired color. Combustible particles can be mixed with the body or pressed into the surface to produce texture.

Agateware In order to avoid cracking and breaking which come along with mixing a variety of different kinds of clay, potters generally use one white or very light clay as a base. They then add colors in the form of stains or oxides. Colorant is added to the clay when it is in powder form in order to avoid blistering. 1-10% of colorant is generally applied,: So-named after its resemblance to the quartz mineral agate Agate is a microcrystalline variety of quartz (silica), chiefly chalcedony, characterised by its fineness of grain and brightness of color. Although agates may be found in various kinds of rock, they are classically associated with volcanic rocks but can be common in certain metamorphic rocks which has bands or layers of color that are blended together. Agatewares are made by blending clays of differing colors together, but not mixing them to the extent that they lose their individual identities. The wares have a distinctive veined or mottled appearance. The term 'agateware' is used to describe such wares in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland[note 7] is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many small islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land; in Japan the term neriage is used and in China, where such things have been made since at least the Tang Dynasty, they are called marbled wares. Great care is required in the selection of clays to be used for making agatewares as the clays used must have matching thermal movement characteristics.

Banding: This is the application, by hand or by machine, of a band of color to the edge of a plate or cup. Also known as lining, this operation is often carried out on a potter's wheel.

Burnishing: The surface of pottery wares may be burnished prior to firing by rubbing with a suitable instrument of wood, steel or stone, to produce a polished finish that survives firing. It is possible to produce very highly polished wares when fine clays are used, or when the polishing is carried out on wares that have been partially dried and contain little water, though wares in this condition are extremely fragile and the risk of breakage is high.

Engobe: This is a clay slip, often white or cream in color that is used to coat the surface of pottery, usually before firing. Its purpose is often decorative, though it can also be used to mask undesirable features in the clay to which it is applied. Engobe slip may be applied by painting or by dipping, to provide a uniform, smooth, coating. Engobe has been used by potters from pre-historic times until the present day, and is sometimes combined with sgraffito decoration, where a layer of engobe is scratched through to reveal the color of the underlying clay. With care it is possible to apply a second coat of engobe of a different color to the first and to incise decoration through the second coat to expose the color of the underlying coat. Engobes used in this way often contain substantial amounts of silica, sometimes approaching the composition of a glaze.

Litho: This is a commonly used abbreviation for lithography, although the alternative names of transfer print or decal are also common. These are used to apply designs to articles. The litho comprises three layers: the color, or image, layer which comprises the decorative design; the cover coat, a clear protective layer, which may incorporate a low-melting glass; and the backing paper on which the design is printed by screen printing or lithography. There are various methods of transferring the design while removing the backing-paper, some of which are suited to machine application

Gold: Decoration with gold is used on some high quality ware. Different methods exist for its application, including:

• Best gold - a suspension of gold powder in essential oils mixed with a flux and a mercury salt extended. This can be applied by a painting technique. From the kiln the decoration is dull and requires burnishing to reveal the full color
• Acid Gold – a form of gold decoration developed in the early 1860s at the English factory of Mintons Ltd, Stoke-on-Trent. The glazed surface is etched with diluted hydrofluoric acid prior to application of the gold. The process demands great skill and is used for the decoration only of ware of the highest class.
• Bright Gold – consists of a solution of gold sulphoresinate together with other metal resonates and a flux. The name derives from the appearance of the decoration immediately after removal from the kiln as it requires no burnishing
• Mussel Gold – an old method of gold decoration. It was made by rubbing together gold leaf, sugar and salt, followed by washing to remove solubles

Glazing

Glaze is a glassy coating on pottery, the primary purposes of which are decoration and protection. One important use of glaze is in rendering porous pottery vessels impermeable to water and other liquids. Glaze may be applied by dusting the unfired composition it over the ware, or by spraying, dipping, trailing or brushing on a thin slurry composed of the unfired glaze and water. The colour of a glaze before it has been fired may be significantly different than afterwards. To prevent glazed wares sticking to kiln furniture during firing, either a small part of the object being fired (for example, the foot) is left unglazed or, alternatively, special refractory spurs are used as supports. These are removed and discarded after the firing.

Some specialised glazing techniques include:

• Salt-glazing, where common salt is introduced to the kiln during the firing process. The high temperatures cause the salt to voltalize, when it is then deposited on the surface of the ware to react with the body to form a sodium aluminosilicate glaze. In the 17th and 18th centuries salt-glazing was used in the manufacture of domestic pottery. Now, except for use by some studio potters, the process is obsolete. The last large scale application before its demise in the face of environmental clean air restrictions was in the production of salt-glazed sewer-pipes^[17][18].
• Ash glazing - ash from the combustion of plant matter has been uses as the flux component of glazes. The source of the ash was geneally the combustion waste from fuelling kilns, although the potential of ash derived from arable crop wastes has been investigated^[19] Ash glazes are of historical interest in the Far East, although there are reports of small scale use in other locations, such as the Catawba Valley Pottery in the United States. They are now limited to small numbers of studio potters who value the unpredictability arising from the variable nature of the raw material^[20].

Firing

Firing produces irreversible changes in the body. It is only after firing that the article or material is pottery. In lower-fired pottery the changes include sintering, the fusing together of coarser particles in the body at their points of contact with each other. In the case of porcelain, where different materials and higher firing-temperatures are used the physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of the constituents in the body are greatly altered. In all cases the object of firing is to permanently harden the wares and the firing regime must be appropriate to the materials used to make them. As a rough guide, earthenwares are normally fired at temperatures in the range of about 1000 to 1200 °C; stonewares at between about 1100 to 1300 °C; and porcelains at between about 1200 to 1400 °C. However, the way that ceramics mature in the kiln is influenced not only by the peak temperature achieved, but also by the duration of the period of firing. Thus, the maximum temperature within a kiln is often held constant for a period of time to soak the wares, to produce the maturity required in the body of the wares.

The atmosphere within a kiln during firing can affect the appearance of the finished wares. An oxidising atmosphere, produced by allowing air to enter the kiln, can cause the oxidation of clays and glazes. A reducing atmosphere, produced by limiting the flow of air into the kiln, can strip oxygen from the surface of clays and glazes. This can affect the appearance of the wares being fired and, for example, some glazes containing iron fire brown in an oxidising atmosphere, but green in a reducing atmosphere. The atmosphere within a kiln can be adjusted to produce complex effects in glaze.

Kilns may be heated by burning wood, coal and gas or by electricity. When used as fuels, coal and wood can introduce smoke, soot and ash into the kiln which can affect the appearance of unprotected wares. For this reason wares fired in wood- or coal-fired kilns are often placed in the kiln in saggars; lidded ceramic boxes, to protect them. Modern kilns powered by gas or electricity are cleaner and more easily controlled than older wood- or coal-fired kilns and often allow shorter firing times to be used. In a Western adaptation of traditional Japanese Raku ware firing, wares are removed from the kiln while hot and smothered in ashes, paper or woodchips, which produces a distinctive carbonised, appearance. This technique is also used in Malaysia in creating traditional labu sayung^[21][22].

History

It is believed that the earliest pottery wares were hand built and fired in bonfires. Firing times were short but the peak-temperatures achieved in the fire could be high, perhaps in the region of 900 °C, and were reached very quickly. Clays tempered with sand, grit, crushed shell or crushed pottery were often used to make bonfire-fired ceramics, because they provided an open body texture that allows water and other volatile components of the clay to escape freely. The coarser particles in the clay also acted to restrain shrinkage within the bodies of the wares during cooling, which was carried out slowly to reduce the risk of thermal stress and cracking. In the main, early bonfire-fired wares were made with rounded bottoms, to avoid sharp angles that might be susceptible to cracking. The earliest intentionally constructed kilns were pit-kilns or trench-kilns; holes dug in the ground and covered with fuel. Holes in the ground provided insulation and resulted in better control over firing.

The earliest known ceramic objects are Gravettian figurines such as those discovered at Dolni Vestonice in the modern-day Czech Republic. The Venus of Dolní Věstonice (Věstonická Venuše in Czech) is a Venus figurine, a statuette of a nude female figure dated to 29,000–25,000 BCE (Gravettian industry).^[23] The earliest pottery vessel found to date was excavated from the Yuchanyan Cave in southern China and the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 2009 reports that the ware dates back to 18,000 years ago.^[24] Pottery vessels made by the Incipient Jōmon people of Japan from around 10,500 BCE have also been found.^[25][26] The term "Jōmon" means "cord-marked" in Japanese. This refers to the markings made on clay vessels and figures using sticks with cords wrapped around them. Pottery which dates back to 10,000 BCE have also been excavated in China.^[27] It appears that pottery was independently developed in North Africa during the tenth millennium b.p.^[28] and in South America during the seventh millennium b.p.^[29]

The earliest history of pottery production can be divided into 4 periods namely; the Hassuna period (5000 - 4,500 BCE), the Halaf period (4,500 - 4000 BCE), the Ubaid period (4000 - 3000 BCE), and the Uruk period (3,500 - 2000 BCE). The invention of the potter's wheel in Mesopotamia sometime between 6,000 and 4,000 BCE (Ubaid period) revolutionized pottery production. Specialized potters were then able to meet the expanding needs of the world's first cities. Pottery was in use in ancient India during the Mehrgarh Period II (5500 - 4800 BCE) and Merhgarh Period III (4800 - 3500 BCE), known as the ceramic Neolithic and chalcolithic. Pottery, including items known as the ed-Dur vessels, originated in regions of the Indus valley and has been found in a number of sites in the Indus valley civilization.^[30][31]

In the Mediterranean, during the Greek Dark Ages (1100–800 BCE), artists used geometric designs such as squares, circles and lines to decorate amphoras and other pottery. The period between 1500-300 BCE in ancient Korea is known as the Mumun Pottery Period.^[32]

The quality of pottery has varied historically, in part dependent upon the repute in which the potter's craft was held by the community.^{[citation needed]} For example, in the Chalcolithic period in Mesopotamia, Halafian pottery achieved a level of technical competence and sophistication, not seen until the later developments of Greek pottery with Corinthian and Attic ware.^{[citation needed]} The distinctive Red Samian ware of the Early Roman Empire was copied by regional potters throughout the Empire. The Dark Age period saw a collapse in the quality of European pottery which did not recover in status and quality until the European Renaissance.^{[citation needed]}

In archaeology

For archaeologists, anthropologists, and historians the study of pottery can help to provide an insight into past cultures. Pottery is durable and fragments, at least, often survive long after artifacts made from less-durable materials have decayed past recognition. Combined with other evidence, the study of pottery artifacts is helpful in the development of theories on the organisation, economic condition and the cultural development of the societies that produced or acquired pottery. The study of pottery may also allow inferences to be drawn about a culture's daily life, religion, social relationships, attitudes towards neighbors, attitudes to their own world and even the way the culture understood the universe.

Chronologies based on pottery are often essential for dating non-literate cultures and are often of help in the dating of historic cultures as well. Trace element analysis, mostly by neutron activation, allows the sources of clay to be accurately identified and the thermoluminescence test can be used to provide an estimate of the date of last firing. Examining fired pottery shards from prehistory, scientists learned that during high-temperature firing, iron materials in clay record the exact state of Earth's magnetic field at that exact moment.

Environmental issues in production

Although many of the environmental effects of pottery production have existed for millennia, some of these have been amplified with modern technology and scales of production. The principal factors for consideration fall into two categories: (a) effects on workers and (b) effects on the general environment. Within the effects on workers, chief impacts are indoor air quality, sound levels and possible over-illumination. Regarding the general environment, factors of interest are fuel consumption, off-site water pollution, air pollution and disposal of hazardous materials.

Historically plumbism, lead poisoning, was a significant health concern to those glazing pottery. This was recognised at least as early as the nineteenth century, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to limit pottery workers’ exposure was introduced in 1899.^[33] Whilst the risk to those working in ceramics is now much reduced it can still not be ignored. With respect to indoor air quality, workers can be exposed to fine particulate matter, carbon monoxide and certain heavy metals. The greatest health risk is the potential to develop silicosis from the long-term exposure to crystalline silica. Proper ventilation can reduce the risks, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to govern ventilation was introduced in 1899.^[33] Another, more recent study at Laney College, Oakland, California suggests that all these factors can be controlled in a well designed workshop environment.^[34]

The use of energy and pollutants in the production of ceramics is a growing concern. Electric firing is arguably more environmentally friendly than combustion firing, although the source of the electricity varies in environmental impact.^{[citation needed]}

Other usages

Due to the large number of pottery factories, or colloquially, 'Pot Banks', the English city of Stoke-on-Trent, one of the first industrial cities of the modern era where, as early as 1785, two hundred pottery manufacturers employed 20,000 workers, is often called "The Potteries".^[35] For the same reason the largest football club in the city are known as "The Potters".^[36]

See also

• List of pottery terms
• Anagama kiln
• Arts and Crafts movement
• Asbestos-Ceramic
• Barro Negro pottery
• Bone china
• Celadon
• Ceramic
• Ceramic art
• Chinese porcelain
• Delftware
• Dipped ware
• Faience
• Fiestaware
• Glaze defects
• History of pottery in Palestine
• Iranian pottery
• Jasperware
• Kakiemon pottery
• Longquan celadon
• Maiolica of Renaissance Italy
• Native American pottery
• Poole Pottery
• Porcelain
• Rockingham Pottery
• Royal Doulton — Henry Doulton, John Doulton
• Sancai
• Sea pottery
• Slipware
• Staffordshire Potteries
• Talavera, Mexican maiolica
• Wedgwood — Enoch Wedgwood, Josiah Wedgwood
• Victorian majolica
• Vietnamese pottery
• Yixing pottery

References

1. ^ Thefreedictionary.com
2. ^ Merriam-Webster.com
3. ^ 'Pottery Science: materials, process and products.' Allen Dinsdale. Ellis Horwood Limited, 1986.
4. ^ 'An Introduction To The Technology Of Pottery. 2nd edition. Paul Rado. Institute Of Ceramics & Pergamon Press, 1988
5. ^ Dennis Krueger, Why On Earth Do They Call It Throwing?, in Ceramics Today
6. ^ "Whitewares: Production, Testing And Quality Control." W.Ryan & C.Radford. Pergamon Press. 1987
7. ^ "Novel Approach To Injection Moulding." M.Y.Anwar, P.F. Messer, H.A. Davies, B. Ellis. Ceramic Technology International 1996. Sterling Publications Ltd., London, 1995. pg.95-96,98.
8. ^ "Injection Moulding Of Porcelain Pieces." A. Odriozola, M.Gutierrez, U.Haupt, A.Centeno. Bol. Soc. Esp. Ceram. Vidrio 35, No.2, 1996. pg.103-107
9. ^ "Injection Moulding Of Cups With Handles." U.Haupt. International Ceramics. No.2, 1998, pg. 48-51.
10. ^ "Injection Moulding Of Porcelain Pieces." A. Odriozola, M.Gutierrez, U.Haupt, A.Centeno. Bol. Soc. Esp. Ceram. Vidrio 35, No.2, 1996. pg.103-107
11. ^ "Injection Moulding Technology In Tableware Production." Ceramic World Review. 13, No.54, 2003. pg94, 96-97.
12. ^ An Introduction To The Technology Of Pottery. Paul Rado. Pergamon Press. 1969
13. ^ ‘Sanitaryware Technology’. Domenico Fortuna. Gruppo Editoriale Faenza Editrice S.p.A. 2000.
14. ^ Dorst.de
15. ^ Ceramicindustry.com
16. ^ Dictionary Of Ceramics. Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. 3rd edition. The Institute Of Minerals. 1994.
17. ^ "Clay Sewer Pipe Manufacture. Part II - The Effect Of Variable Alumina, Silica And Iron Oxide In Clays On Some Properties Of Salt Glazes." H.G.Schurecht. The Journal of the American Ceramic Society. Volume 6. Issue 6, Pg. 717 – 729.
18. ^ "Dictionary Of Ceramics." Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. 3rd edition. The Institute Of Minerals. 1994.
19. ^ "Ash Glaze Research." C. Metcalfe. Ceramic Review No.202. 2003. pg.48-50.
20. ^ “Glaze From Wood Ashes And Their Colour Characteristics.” Y-S. Han, B-H. Lee. Korean Ceramic Society 41. No.2. 2004.
21. ^ http://www.brothers-handmade.com/potteryhistory.html
22. ^ http://www.malaxi.com/perak/labu_sayong.html
23. ^ No. 359: The Dolni Vestonice Ceramics
24. ^ "Chinese pottery may be earliest discovered." Associated Press. 2009-06-01
25. ^ Diamond, Jared (June 1998). "Japanese Roots". Discover (Discover Media LLC). http://discovermagazine.com/1998/jun/japaneseroots1455/. Retrieved 2010-07-10.
26. ^ Kainer, Simon (September 2003). "The Oldest Pottery in the World" (PDF). Current World Archaeology (Robert Selkirk): pp. 44–49. http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa1/CWA_issue_1.pdf. Retrieved 2006-03-23. (Link currently not functional. 2010-04-09.)
27. ^ Uni-lj.si
28. ^ Barnett & Hoopes 1995:23
29. ^ Barnett & Hoopes 1995:211
30. ^ Proceedings, American Philosophical Society (vol. 85, 1942). ISBN 1422372219
31. ^ Archaeology of the United Arab Emirates: Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Archaeology of the U.A.E. By Daniel T. Potts, Hasan Al Naboodah, Peter Hellyer. Contributor Daniel T. Potts, Hasan Al Naboodah, Peter Hellyer. Published 2003. Trident Press Ltd. ISBN 190072488X
32. ^ Ahn 2000; Bale 2001; Crawford and Lee 2003
33. ^ ^{a b} Health Risks In A Victorian Pottery
34. ^ Indoor air quality evaluation for the Butler Building Ceramics Laboratory, Laney College, Oakland, California, Earth Metrics Incorporated, Alameda County Schools Insurance Association, December, 1989
35. ^ Patterns of Labour - Work and Social Change in the Pottery Indsutry. Richard Whipp. Routlidge 1990
36. ^ Stokecityfc.com

• ASTM Standard C 242-01 Standard Terminology of Ceramic Whitewares and Related Products
• Ashmore, Wendy & Sharer, Robert J., (2000). Discovering Our Past: A Brief Introduction to Archaeology Third Edition. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0072978827
• Barnett, William & Hoopes, John (Eds.) (1995). The Emergence of Pottery. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-517-8
• Childe, V. G., (1951). Man Makes Himself. London: Watts & Co.
• Rice, Prudence M. (1987). Pottery Analysis – A Sourcebook. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-71118-8.
• Historynet.com
• Tschegg, C., Hein, I., Ntaflos, Th., 2008. State of the art multi-analytical geoscientific approach to identify Cypriot Bichrome Wheelmade Ware reproduction in the Eastern Nile delta (Egypt). Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 1134-1147.

External links

• How pottery is made
• Neolithic Pottery Manufacture
• Pottery manufacture in recent past
• A brief history of the pottery industry
• Pottery-related objects and photographs to explore online
• Customs and Working Practices of a Victorian Pottery
• Ancient pottery in Canada

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